Legen-+Aly,+Jerome,+Javi+-+Dary

TOPIC: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

ALKANES
 * NOV. 24, 2010

PROPERTIES OF ALKANES

Homologous series - all members have the same general formula.

Alkanes: C(n) + H(2n+2)

Chemical Properties:


 * Non-polar
 * Has Van der Waals forces

Physical Properties:


 * Low boiling points and melting points (non-polar)
 * Increase as number of carbons increase
 * Less dense than water
 * Insoluble in water

Trend in Boiling Points

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">The first six members are; <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">*Arranged from lowest to highest

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 120%;">1.) Methane -162 °C <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 120%;">2.) Ethane -89°C <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 120%;">3.) Propane -42°C <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 120%;">4.) Butane 0°C <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 120%;">5.) Pentane 36°C <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 120%;">6.) Hexane 69°C

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<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Boiling points increase as the number of carbon atoms increase. This is due to Van der Waals forces. Stronger van der waals forces between the atoms give rise to greater boiling points.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Alkanes have very low boiling points for their molar masses.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;"> The boiling point has a linear relationship with the size (molecular weight) <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;"> As a rule of thumb, the boiling point rises 20 - 30 °C for each carbon added to the chain

<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 120%;">Isomers <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;"> - <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">compounds with the same chemical formula but have different structures or structural formulas.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Example:

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">C5H10 <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">This compound may come in the form of 1-pentane, 2-pentane, 2-methylebutene, 2-methyl-2-butene, 3-methylebutene and 2-ethylepropane. All of these have the same chemical formula.

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<span style="color: #800080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 130%;">REACTIONS OF ALKA﻿NES


 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Alkanes; least chemically reactive class of organic compounds.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">They have a relatively low reactivity because their C bonds cannot be easily broken because of their stability.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Types of Reactions:


 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 3em;">Combustion
 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 14px; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 3em;">Halogenation

<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 120%;">Reactions with Oxygen:

<span style="color: #0900ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">- <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;"> All alkanes react with oxygen in a combustion reaction, <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">The bigger the alkane... the harder to ignite.



<span style="display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: small; width: 334px;">

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">All alkanes burn in air giving off carbon dioxide and water.

<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 120%;">Reaction with Halogens: <span style="color: #0900ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">- <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">called free radical halogenation

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Free radicals are when Cl—Cl becomes Cl• and Cl•

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">The Cl• react with the Hydrogens in the Hydrocarbon chains

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">The net reaction with Methane is

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 120%;">CH4 +Cl + Cl —> CH3Cl + HCl

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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 120%;">Sources:

<span style="color: #0900ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">[] <span style="color: #0900ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">[] <span style="color: #0900ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">[|http://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch334/lecture/lecture6.ht]

<span style="color: #800000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 140%;">ALKENES by Javi
 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Nov. 27, 2010

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Alkenes (Unsaturated) - more reactive <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Alkanes (Saturated) - less reactive

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">*Saturated hydrocarbon- molecules contain only single bonds bond between carbon atoms. <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">*Unsaturated hydrocarbon – molecules contain one or more carbon-to-carbon multiple bonds.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">In addition to combustion, the double bonds in alkenes can be broken to facilitate the addition of hydrogen and many other species.

<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Combustion of Alkenes
<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Alkenes -burn in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor. <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Alkenes show a greater tendency than alkanes to undergo incomplete combustion, forming much carbon monoxide and carbon rather than carbon dioxide. <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">The combustion reaction of alkenes is not as important as that of alkanes. Unlike alkanes, alkenes are not used as fuels. Instead, because of their reactivity, alkenes are used as the starting point in the manufacture of many important chemicals.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">An example of the combustion of an alkene is:

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) > 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Addition Reactions of Alkenes
<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Most of the reactions that alkenes undergo involve the breakage of their double bond and the addition of another species. These are addition reactions.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Addition of Hydrogen

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Hydrogen can be added to an alkene to form the corresponding alkane. This reaction occurs in the presence of a palladium, platinum or nickel catalyst. (Heat is required for this reaction when a nickel catalyst is used.)

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Hydrogenation, as this reaction is called, is an important process in the food industry when nickel is used as a catalyst. Via hydrogenation, less valuable(commercially), unsaturated, edible oils, such as those present in sunflower seed oil and peanut oil are converted to more valuable, saturated, edible fats such as margarines.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">An example of the hydrogenation of an alkene is:

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">CH2=CH2(g) + H2(g) > CH3-CH3(g) <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">(ethane) + ( Hydrogen gas) (ethane)

//**<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Addition of Halogens **//
<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Halogens react with alkenes forming halogenoalkanes. This reaction can occur without catalysis. <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">The addition of liquid bromine to an alkene serves as a characteristic test. If liquid bromine, which is a brown liquid, is added to an alkane without light or heat, a colorless solution is formed. This is because the brown liquid bromine reacts with the alkene to form a bromoalkane which is colorless.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">An example of this reaction is:

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">CH2=CH2(g) + Br2(l) -> BrCH2CH2Br(l) <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">(Ethene) + (Bromine gas) 1,2-dibromo ethane

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Bromine water also reacts and is decolorised by alkenes. However, different products are formed in this reaction. A bromoalcohol and hydrogen bromide are the products formed when bromine water reacts with alkenes.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">An example of this reaction is:

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">CH2=CH2(g) + Br2(aq) + H2O(l) > BrCH2CH2OH(aq) + HBr(aq) <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;"> ( 1-bromo ethanol) (hydrogen bromide)

//**<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Addition of Hydrogen Halides **//
<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide all react with alkenes to form halogenoalkanes.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">An example of the addition of a hydrogen halide to an alkene is:

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">CH2=CH2(g) + HBr(g) > CH3CHBrCH3(l) <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;"> (2-bromo propane)

<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Oxidation of Alkenes
<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Alkenes are oxidized by alkaline potassium manganate(VII), a weak oxidizing agent. When alkenes are added to the purple alkaline potassium manganate(VII), there is a color change to brown as the alkenes are being oxidized. The product formed as a result of this oxidation is a diol. This reaction can be used to test for carbon-carbon double bonds.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">An example of the oxidation of an alkene is:

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">CH2=CH2(g) (+ KMnO4, OH-) > CH2OH-CH2OH(l) <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;"> (ethylene glycol)

<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Polymerization
<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Polymerization of alkenes occurs when many alkene molecules add together to form one large molecule called a polymer. <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">The polymerization of alkenes is important in the formation of plastics, rope, food boxes, bowls and buckets among many others

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">An example of a polymerization reaction is:

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">nCH2=CH2(g) > -[-CH2-CH2-]-n(s)

Alkenes are much more reactive than alkanes because of their unsaturated nature. The breakage of their double bond allows many reactions, other than combustion, to occur in alkenes. Examples of these are addition reactions, oxidation and polymerization.

<span style="color: #808000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">SOURCES
<span style="color: #808000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 110%;">Ramsden, E.N. (2000) A Level Chemistry. Nelson Thornes Ltd.

<span style="color: #800000; font: 18.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 27.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> FUNCTIONAL GROUPS <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 16.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> • Organic Derivatives (Dec. 7, 2010)

<span style="color: #ff0200; font: 16.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 23.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> ALCOHOLS <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Alcohols are hydroxy-substituted alkanes, alkenes, or alkynes in which the substitution occurs on a saturated carbon.

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> The general formula for alcohols is R—OH, where the R group can represent the alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynal groups. In the case of substitution on alkenes and alkynes, only saturated carbons may be substituted. For example, the following compounds are all alcohols:


 * [[image:webkit-fake-url://1D09A6BD-C4A1-4B90-9EAA-4F312CCC2374/pastedGraphic.pdf caption="pastedGraphic.pdf"]] ||

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> If the hydroxyl group were substituted for a hydrogen on an unsaturated carbon, an alcohol would not form. For example, substituting the hydroxyl group for a terminal hydrogen of 1-propene gives an unstable enol that tautomerizes to a ketone.


 * [[image:webkit-fake-url://1D09A6BD-C4A1-4B90-9EAA-4F312CCC2374/pastedGraphic_1.pdf caption="pastedGraphic_1.pdf"]] ||

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Nomenclature <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> You can use both the common and IUPAC systems to name alcohols. In the common system, you name an alcohol by listing the alkyl group and adding the word alcohol. Following are some examples of alcohols and their common names:


 * [[image:webkit-fake-url://1D09A6BD-C4A1-4B90-9EAA-4F312CCC2374/pastedGraphic_2.pdf caption="pastedGraphic_2.pdf"]] ||

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> In the IUPAC system, use the following series of rules to name alcohols: <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> The following examples show how you apply these rules:
 * 1) <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; decimal margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Pick out the longest continuous chain to which the hydroxyl group is directly attached. The parent name of the alcohol comes from the alkane name for the same chain length. Drop the -e ending and add -ol.
 * 2) <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; decimal margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Number the parent chain so that the carbon bearing the hydroxyl group has the lowest possible number. Place the number in front of the parent name.
 * 3) <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; decimal margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Locate and name substituents other than the hydroxyl group.


 * [[image:webkit-fake-url://1D09A6BD-C4A1-4B90-9EAA-4F312CCC2374/pastedGraphic_3.pdf caption="pastedGraphic_3.pdf"]] ||

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> You may classify alcohols as primary (1°), secondary (2°), or tertiary (3°), based on the class of carbon to which the hydroxyl group (—OH) is directly bonded. For example, 1-propanol is a 1° alcohol, 2-propanol is a 2° alcohol, and 2-methyl-2-propanol is a 3° alcohol.

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Physical properties <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Alcohols contain both a polar —OH group and a nonpolar alkyl group. As a result of this composition, alcohols that have small alkyl chains tend to be water soluble. As alkyl chain length increases, water solubility decreases. <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Through the OH group, alcohols are capable of forming hydrogen bonds to themselves, other alcohols, neutral molecules, and anions. This bond formation leads to abnormally high boiling points compared to other organic molecules of similar carbon chain length.

<span style="color: #ff0200; font: 16.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 23.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> ALDEHYDES

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Naming Aldehydes <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> The parent chain is the longest chain that includes the aldehyde group. It's name is made by replacing the ending -e of parent alkane name with -al. The numbering of the chain always starts with the carbon of the aldehyde group being 1. For example: (parent chain will be bold for visual clarity)

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> C=O <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> H <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> methanal  || <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 3 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> C=O <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> H <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> ethanal  || <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 3 CH 2 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> C=O <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> H <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> propanal  || <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 3 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 3 CH <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> C=O <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> H <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> 2-methylpropanal  ||
 * <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> H

<span style="color: #ff0200; font: 16.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 23.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> KETONES <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Naming Ketones <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> In naming ketones, the parent chain includes the carbonyl group and is numbered so that the carbonyl location is the lowest number. The number of the location must be part of the name whenever there would be an uncertainty. For example: (parent chain will be bold for visual clarity)

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> C=O <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 3 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> propanone (acetone) || <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 3 CH 2 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> C=O <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> 3-hexanone || <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 3 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 3 CH <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> C=O <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> 2-methyl-3-hexanone ||
 * <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 3

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Both aldehydes and ketones, have higher boiling points than hydrocarbons of similar chain lengths due to a greater degree of polarity and greater dipole-dipole interaction between molecules. Carbonyl groups cannot form strong intermolecular hydrogen bonds, so both aldehydes and ketones generally boil at lower temperatures than their alcohol analogues. However, aldehydes and ketones of low molecular weight do form strong hydrogen bonds with water, leading to good solubility.

<span style="color: #ff0200; font: 16.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 23.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Naming Carboxylic Acids <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> The parent chain must include the carboxyl carbon, which is given position number 1. The name of the alkane attached is changed by replacing the -e with -oic acid. For example:

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> methanoic acid || <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 3 COOH <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> ethanoic acid (acetic acid) || <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 COOH <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> butanoic acid ||
 * <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> HCOOH

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Because carboxylic acids have both a lone oxygen and an OH group, they are strongly hydrogen-bonded to each other, therefore having high boiling points. The carboxyl group is weakly acidic and all carboxylic acids neutralize OH -. <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> RCOOH + NaOH ==> RCOONa + H 2 O

<span style="color: #ff0200; font: 16.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 23.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> AMINES

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Amines are organic derivatives of ammonia, meaning that one, two, or three hydrocarbon groups have replaced the hydrogens in ammonia. The simplest ones are:

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> H-N-H <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> ammonia || <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> H  <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 3 -N-H <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> methylamine || <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> H  <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 3 -N-CH 3 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> dimethylamine || <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 3 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> | <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> CH 3 -N-CH 3 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> trimethylamine ||
 * <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> H

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> The NH bond is not as polar as the OH bond in alcohols, so amines boil at lower temperatures than alcohols of comparable molecular masses. Amines which have low molecular masses are soluble in water because of hydrogen bonding. This is also why trimethylamine has a lower boiling point than dimethylamine (even though its bigger), becuase there is no NH bond to cause significant hydrogen bonding.

<span style="color: #ff0200; font: 16.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 23.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> ALKYL HALIDE <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> An alkyl halide is another name for a halogen-substituted alkane. The carbon atom, which is bonded to the halogen atom, has sp 3 hybridized bonding orbitals and exhibits a tetrahedral shape. Due to electronegativity differences between the carbon and halogen atoms, the σ covalent bond between these atoms is polarized, with the carbon atom becoming slightly positive and the halogen atom partially negative. Halogen atoms increase in size and decrease in electronegativity going down the family in the periodic table. Therefore, the bond length between carbon and halogen becomes longer and less polar as the halogen atom changes from fluorine to iodine.

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Physical properties <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Alkyl halides have little solubility in water but good solubility with nonpolar solvents, such as hexane. Many of the low molecular weight alkyl halides are used as solvents in reactions that involve nonpolar reactants, such as bromine. The boiling points of different alkyl halides containing the same halogen increase with increasing chain length. For a given chain length, the boiling point increases as the halogen is changed from fluorine to iodine. For isomers of the same compound, the compound with the more highly-branched alkyl group normally has the lowest boiling point. Table [|__1__] summarizes data for some representative alkyl halides.

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Flouride Chloride Bromide Iodine <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Group bp bp bp bp <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Methyl −78.4 −28.8 −3.6 42.5 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Ethyl −37.7 13.1 38.4 72 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Propyl −2.5 46.6 70.8 102 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Isopropyl −9.4 34 59.4 89.4 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Butyl 32 78.4 101 130 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Sec-butyl 68 91.2 120 <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Tert−butyl 51 73.3 100 ||
 * <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> TABLE 1 Boiling Points (°C) of Alkyl Halides

<span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Nomenclature <span style="color: #2900ee; font: 14.0px 'Comic Sans MS'; line-height: 21.0px; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"> Alkyl halides are named using the IUPAC rules for alkanes. Naming the alkyl group attached to the halogen and adding the inorganic halide name for the halogen atom creates common names.


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