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Homologous Series
A homologous series is a group of organic compounds that possess similar properties and are in the same characteristic group. All members of a homologous series share a similar chemical structure that can be represented by a general formula. This is because they are all in the same functional group. Members of homologous series also have a common difference of -CH 2 from each other.

Physical properties of members of a homologous series show a consistent and consecutive progression shown when the molecular mass of members of a homologous series are increased. The chemical properties of members of a homologous series are all similar. All members of a particular homologous series can be prepared in similar ways.

Trend in Boiling Points
The general trend of the boiling points of an alkane homologous series will be the increase of this property with an increase in the molecular mass of the members of a series. This is because adding more atoms strengthens the Van der Waals forces between alkane molecules.

Definition of Isomers
Isomers are substances or compounds with the same molecular formula but may have differing properties due to differences in structure.

An example of a set of isomers would be butane and isobutane -- linear and branched versions of C 4 H 10, respectively.

Trend in Boiling Points of Isomers
When it comes to isomers, the more linear and less branched an arrangement is, the stronger the intermolecular bonds are. This trend can be likened to Lego blocks -- a long strip of Lego blocks will connect more sturdily to another long strip of Lego blocks than a strip of Lego blocks with one odd piece sticking out.

Using the example given above, butane and isobutane, butane would have a higher boiling point than isobutane since it is linear compared to the branched isobutane.

Complete Combustion
In the situation that there is sufficient oxygen, Hydrocarbons will produce Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) and Water (H 2 O)

For example, we use ethane (C 2 H6) and oxygen (O 2 )

2C2H6 + 7O2 -> 4CO2 + 6H2O

**Alkane Naming Conventions** The IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) has several rules for naming alkanes.

Several important, basic things to note:
 * Simple, unbranched alkane chains have names that all end with "-ane" making identification quick and easy.
 * From C-1 to C-4 (1 carbon to 4 carbons), unique numerical prefixes are used: 1 - **meth**ane, 2 - **eth**ane, 3 - **prop**ane, 4 - **but**ane
 * Common Greek numerical prefixes are used for the remaining chains: 5 - **pent**ane, 6 - **hex**ane, 7 - **hept**ane, 8 - **oct**ane, 9 - **non**ane, 10 - **dec**ane
 * In naming, numbers are separated from other numbers with commas and letters are separated from numbers with hyphens (-).

There are five basic rules:
 * 1) Identify the longest (parent) chain. Name this parent chain.
 * 2) Identify any side chains. Add the prefix of the side chain (as identified in the basic things to note above) before the name of the parent chain. If there is more than one of a specific side chain, use a Greek numerical prefix (di-, tri-, etc.) before it. (Ex. trimethyl-, diethyl-)
 * 3) Add a number before the side chain based on how far it is from the end of the parent chain. Since you can count two paths (for each end of the parent chain) always choose the smallest possible number. Always base numbering on the longest or bulkiest side chain.
 * 4) Find any other side chains along the path chosen (based on the longest side chain) and number other side chains along the path you have chosen with steps 2 and 3.
 * 5) Assemble the names in alphabetical order (alphabetize by the name of the side chain; ignore numerical prefixes (like di- or tri-) while arranging.

Properties of Alkenes
Alkenes, like alkanes, are also a type of homogeneous hydrocarbon. It differs from alkanes in that while alkanes form single bonds, alkenes form double bonds. The fact that they are double-bonded makes them more reactive than alkanes.

The bonding they have defines the saturation of the hydrocarbon. Singly bonded chains are considered saturated, whilst doubly bonded chains are considered unsaturated. For this reason, alkanes are saturated and alkenes are unsaturated.

Reactions of Alkenes
Like any other hydrocarbon, they combust in air with oxygen.

What's important is the double bonds of Alkenes. Usually, the pi bond breaks and the electrons from it are used to join the two carbon atoms to other things.. But once after, there are called **addition reactions.**

For example, using a general molecule X-Y. . . The open bonds that offer the slot for molecule x and y, create an attraction of sorts that bring it closer through the bonds. These degrees of positive charges are called **electrophiles. :)**

=
In addition reaction, a substance is added at a double bonds of Alkenes or triple bonds of Alkynes. One of the bonds between two carbons (in alkenes) is broken to join the added substance, in this case, a halogen halide. (a hydrogen added to a halogen) The bonds between the hydrogen halide is also broken so that the hydrogen and the halogen can bond with each of the carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon. For alkenes, The resulting product becomes a single bonded hydrocarbon so known to as an alkane. While Alkynes, they result into a alkene, with double bonded carbon present in their hydrocarbon.======

Alcohol
An alcohol is a member of any organic compound that is characterized by the presence of one or more alkanes that form open chains that are OH (hydroxyl) groups in the molecule. They form **esters** with acids. Esters are organic compounds made by replacing the hydrogen of an acid by an alkyl or other functional organic group. An example of this esters are the naturally occurring fats, which are esters of fatty acids.

Naming Your Alcohol : 1.) Select the parent chain that is longest continuous chain with the OH group included. 2.) Suggest to use prefixes for how many carbons are included in the parent chain. 3.) Indicate by a number the position of the OH group by the parent chain. 4.) Indicate by a number the position of the other groups attached to the parent chain.

Example : 1 - bromo - 2-propanol (with one bromine atom attached to the parent chain of four carbons with an OH connected to it)

Properties of Alcohol -It is **Polar,** contains hydrogen bonds (as an intermolecular force), capable of Hydrogen bonding to other alcohol molecules, other neutral molecules or to even anions (positively charged atoms) Boiling Point - High (greater energy needed to break the hydrogen bonds present) Solubility - High Solubility (a solute) Acidity - Weak Acidity yet also weak bases (about acidic and basic as water) Volatility - Low Volatility (flammability; easy to burn)

Classifying Alcohols

Primary - having only one hydrocarbon attached to the main carbon (one R)

Secondary - having two hydrocarbon attached to the main carbon (two R's)

Tertiary - having three hydrocarbon attached to the main carbon (three R's)

Combustion of Alcohol

2CH3OH (methanol) + 3O2 (oxygen) --> 2CO2 + 4H2O
 * R-OH** + O2 -> CO2 + H2O

Oxidation of Alcohol

For Primary :
 * type 1) two hydrogens are removed from alcohol (one from carbon and one from the oxygen)**
 * The resulting hydrocarbon would be an aldehyde. (with now, only one oxygen double bonded to carbon)**
 * type 2) two hydrogens are removed from alcohol (two from the main carbon) The resulting hydrocarbon now an OH (hydroxyl group) and an Oxygen atom is attached to the main carbon. (carbonyl group) forming a carboxylic acid with (OH single bond and O double bond to the main carbon)**

For Secondary :
 * type 1) two hydrogen atoms are removed from alcohol (one from carbon, one from the OH) to form a ketone, which is hydrocarbons attached to the carbon with an oxygen (double bonded to it)**

For Tertiary :

Aldehydes




Aldehydes and ketones are simple compounds which contain a **//carbonyl group//** - a carbon-oxygen double bond. They are simple in the sense that they don't have other reactive groups like -OH or -Cl attached directly to the carbon atom in the carbonyl group - as you might find, for example, in carboxylic acids containing -COOH.

When you are writing formulae for these, the aldehyde group (the carbonyl group with the hydrogen atom attached) is always written as -CHO - //never// as COH. That could easily be confused with an alcohol. Ethanal, for example, is written as CH3CHO; methanal as HCHO.

Naming Your Aldehyde :

1.) The longest chain consisting of the C-O-H group is considered the parent chain. It is named by replacing the end of the alkane/alkene/alkyne with an -al. 2.) If dealing with carboxylic acids, find the aldehyde from the parent chain and then treat the R as one name then add an -all then again add a -dehyde right after the prefix (which is the parent chain's name) Like, for example, acetic, will turn into acetaldehyde.

Properties - It is **Polar,** the carbonyl group present makes the aldehyde polar compounds. Solubility - Reached at about 5 carbons from the parent chain, If more than that, it is not anymore soluble in water. Boiling Point - High Boiling Point (due also to the hydrogen bonding) Acidity - High Acidity ( not basic due to the presence of the carbonyl group) Volatility - High Volatility ( yet again flammable close to fire)

Ketones
Ketones are a derivative of the alkanes. It has a C=O (Carbonyl) group bonded with other carbon atoms. R and R' may be the same or different types of carbons. To name ketones, replace the -e with -one


 * || Boiling Point || Solubility || Acidity || Volatility ||
 * Ketone || Moderate || √ || Far more acidic than other alkanens || More volatile than alcohol and carboxylic acids ||

Carboxylic Acids
Carboxyls feature a Carbonyl (C=O) group and a Hydroxyl(-OH) group. To name carboxylic acids, replace -e with -oic acid


 * || Boiling Point || Solubility || Acidity || Volatility ||
 * Carboxylic Acids || Very High || √ || Typically weak || Less Volatile ||