StevenMarvinJames

Functional Groups a) Amine __Rules of naming:__ There are several different ways to name amines, but most of them are prefixed by the word amino-, with the location of the NH2 - group being indicated. Special considerations are only made whenever the number of carbon atoms is small (one, two or three); in these cases, the old names of methylamine, ethylamine and propylamine tend to be used.

__Names of the compounds containing up to six carbon atoms__ Methylamine - CH3NH2 Ethylamine - C2H5NH2 Propylamine - C3H7NH2 Aminobutane - C4H9NH2 Aminopentane - C5H11NH2 Aminohexane - C6H13NH2

b) Amide __Rules of naming:__ Amides are named after the longest carbon chain, followed by -amide. Secondary amides are named like amines, but the only difference is that the other alkyl group attached to the nitrogen atom is prefixed by an N.

__Names of the compounds containing up to six carbon atoms__ Methanamide - CH3CONH2 Ethanamide - C2H5CONH2 Propanamide - C3H7CONH2 Butanamide - C4H9CONH2 Pentanamide - C5H11CONH2 Hexanamide - C6H13CONH2

c) Ester __Rules of naming:__ Esters are named from the acid and alcohol from which they are derived. The first part of the ester is named after the R- group from the alcohol. Then there will be a space, followed by the name of the acid anion.

__Names of the compounds containing up to six carbon atoms__ Methyl Ethanoate - CH3COOCH3 Ethyl Ethanoate - C2H5COOCH3 Propyl Ethanoate - C3H7COOCH3 Butyl Ethanoate - C4H9COOCH3 Pentyl Ethanoate - C5H11COOCH3 Hexyl Ethanoate - C6H13COOCH3

d) Nitrile __Rules of naming:__ To name Nitriles (cyanides), one must consider the acid from which they are derived, as the -COOH group has been replaced by a -CN group. The suffix -nitrile is added to the hydrocarbon forming the basis of the acid.

__Names of the compounds containing up to six carbon atoms__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Methanenitrile - HCN Ethanenitrile - CH3CN Propanenitrile - C2H5CN Butanenitrile - C3H7CN Pentanenitrile - C4H9CN Hexanenitrile - C5H11CN

As you define, provide possible examples or uses where the term may be applied to when used in chemistry.

1. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__Stereoisomers__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #29303b; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Isomers which have their atoms connected in the same sequence but differ in the way the atoms are oriented in space. Stereoisomers can be classed as cis-trans <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">isomers <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #29303b; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> or <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">optical isomers <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #29303b; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">.

Stereoisomers have the same molecular formula AND structural formula, but their atoms are arranged differently in space. In stereoisomers, each atom is bonded to the same atoms, but the way in which they are bonded is different.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__Example/Uses__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #29303b; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The difference between two stereoisomers lies only in the three dimensional arrangement of atoms.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">[|__http://www.chemicool.com/definition/stereoisomers.html__]

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">2. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__Geometrical isomerism__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Geometric isomers are two or more coordination compounds which contain the same number and types of atoms, and bonds (i.e., the connectivity between atoms is the same), but which have different spatial arrangements of the atoms. Not all compounds have geometric isomers.

Geometrical Isomers occurs when bonds are unable to rotate freely. This is known as RESTRICTED ROTATION. This type of isomerism occurs in alkenes when the two atoms attached to the carbona atoms constituing the double bond are different.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__Example/Uses__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">In the square planar molecule, Pt(NH3)2Cl2, the two ammonia ligands (or the two chloride ligands) can be adjacent to one another or opposite one another. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The isomer with the two ligands adjacent each other is called the cis isomer while the isomer with the like ligands opposite each other is called the trans isomer. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">cis-Pt(NH3)2Cl2 and trans-Pt(NH3)2Cl2 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The cis isomer is used medically to treat certain types of cancer while the trans isomer does not.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">[|__http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/cchem/geomi.html__]

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">3. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__Optical isomerism__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Optical isomers occur when there are four different atoms or groups attached to a single carbon atom. This is known as ASYMMETRIC carbon atoms. Molecules containing an asymmetric carbon atom are said to be CHIRAL molecules. They are non-superimposable mirror images of each other.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__Example/Uses__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Butan-2-ol <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">One should always remember to draw the isomers correctly. It is also quite useful to reverse the large groups, such as the ethyl group seen in the example.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: baseline;">[|__http://www.chemguide.co.uk/basicorg/isomerism/optical.html__]

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">4. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__Polarimeter__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">It is the ability of enantiomers to rotate the plane of plane-polarized light can be shown in practice. This consists of light source, two polarizing lenses, and a tube to hold the sample of the enantiomer located between the lenses.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__Example/Uses__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Polarimeters are used in the sugar industry for determining quality of both juice from sugar cane and the refined sucrose. A polarimeter measures the change in polarization, and it can also be used in checking the purity of chiral mixtures.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt; vertical-align: baseline;">[|__http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarimeter__] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: baseline;">[|__http://www.chemistry.adelaide.edu.au/external/soc-rel/content/polarim.htm__]

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">5. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__Asymmetric__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Carbon atom with four different groups attached which causes a lack of symmetry

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__Example/Uses__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Malic Acid with the one -OH being asymmetric

6. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__Chiral carbon__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">It is a molecule which has no plane of symmetry. The carbon atom with four different groups attached which causes this lack of symmetry is described as an asymmetric carbon atom. (Also can be described as “mirror-image” molecules)

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__Example/Uses__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Alanine

7. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__Enantiomers__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">It is one of the two <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other that are "non-superposable" (not identical), much as one's left and right hands are "the same" but opposite.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__Example/Uses__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Most compounds that contain one or more asymmetric Carbon atoms show enantiomerism. But this is not always true.

There are a few known compounds that do have asymmetric carbons but being non-dissymetric do not show enantiomerism. Thus, meso tartaric acid has two asymmetric Carbons but is still optically inactive. Likewise, trans-cyclohexane - 1,4 - dicarboxylic acid has asymmetric Carbons but also has a centre of symmetry (thereby making it a non-dissymmetric compound) and, therefore, exhibits no enantiomerism.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: baseline;">[|__http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantiomer__]

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">8. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> __Racemic mixture/ racemate__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">A mixture containing equal quantities of both enantiomers, of amolecule with one chiral centre, that has no effect on plane-polarized light. As the two enantiomers rotate the plane equally in opposite directions, their rotations cancel.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">__Example/Use__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">s <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">A racemic mixture is denoted by the prefix (±)- or dl- (for sugars the prefix dl- may be used), indicating an equal (1:1) mixture of dextro and levo isomers. Also the prefix rac- (or racem-) or the symbols RS and SR (all in italic letters) are used.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">[|__http://www.globalscience24.com/eng/d/racemic-mixture-racemate/racemic-mixture-racemate.__] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">[|__htm__] <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; vertical-align: baseline;">[|__http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racemic_mixture__]